French History > Gauls and romans The area that was known as Gaul in Roman times includes modern France, and also Belgium, Luxembourg and western parts of Germany. The conquest of the region by the Romans began in the 2nd – 1st centuries BC, and continued with the ‘Gallic Wars’, led by Julius Caesar, between 58 BC and 51 BC. At that time the region was also under threat from other directions – notably the Suevi and Helvetii tribes (from modern day Germany and Switzerland) – and initially it was defeating these tribes that posed the greatest challenge to the Romans. It was in 53BC in Alesia that the final great battle took place between the Gauls and the Romans. The gauls, fighting under , were defeated by Julius caesar and the Romans, and the Romans can be considered to have occupied France from that date on. The exact location of Alesia is still debated, although the most likely location is in Burgundy at Alise-Sainte-Reine near Dijon. From about 53 BC onwards the focus of the Romans in the Gallic Wars was more on suppressing a series of smaller invasions and uprisings – including 52 BC when a group of tribes led by Vercingetorix posed a significant threat to the Romans, but this threat was also defeated. (Enthusiasts of Asterix and Obelisk, the extremy popular French cartoon characters, will be familiar with this period!) Rome then controlled the area for about six centuries, until the Roman empire itself collapsed, in the face of constant invasions. Romans in France built a number of fine villas and, notably, introduced vines from Italy. The heyday of the Romans in Gaul was during the first and second centuries AD, when there was little unrest and the later tribal invasions from the north and east had not yet started – it was a prosperous area, with prosperity built largely on potterey, wine and food exports. Until the Roman occupation, the predominant religion was druid based and very primitive. It was while under Roman rule that Christianity was introduced, and that Claudius I ordered the Druids suppressed. At the same time, the Gaulish language spoken underwent a fundamental transformation, and by the end of Roman rule the language spoken was a Latin based precursor of modern day French. By the time the Romans left, to defend their homeland in the face of repeated invasions from the Visigoths, the Huns, the Vandals and others, (later as we know to prove successful), towards the end of the 5th century, the basic shape of Modern France had started to emerge. Although the Franks successfully invaded Gaul, they did little to alter the society that was by that time established. Gaul was soon established, with a King based in Paris, and the ‘modern history of France’ began.
Visiting Roman monuments in France
There are many locations in France where you can see ruins dating from the period of Roman occupation. The greatest concentration of these, and the best place to start your exploration of Roman France, is in the south of the country near the border between Languedoc and Provence – highlights include the Pont du Gard aquaduct, the amphitheatre at Orange, and the colosseums at both Nimes and Arles, all found in
Of the brightest stars in the sky, Regulus is closest to the ecliptic, and is regularly occulted by the Moon. Occultations by the planetsMercury and Venus are also possible but rare, as are occultations by asteroids. The last occultation of Regulus by a planet was on July 7, 1959, by Venus.[8] The next will occur on October 1, 2044, also by Venus. Other planets will not occult Regulus over the next few millennia because of their node positions. Regulus was occulted by the asteroid 163 Erigone in the early morning of March 20, 2014.[9][10][11] The center of the shadow path passed through New York and eastern Ontario.[9][10] However, it is unlikely that anyone saw it, due to weather. In particular, the International Occultation Timing Association recorded no successful observations at all.[12] An occultation of Regulus by the asteroid 166 Rhodope was observed by 12 observers from Portugal, Spain, Italy, and Greece on October 19, 2005.[13] Although best seen in the evening in northern hemisphere in late winter and spring, Regulus can be found at some time of night throughout the year except for about a month on either side of August 22, when the sun is too near.[14] Regulus passes through SOHO‘s LASCO C3 every August.[15] For most Earth observers, the heliacal rising of Regulus occurs in the first week of September. Every 8 years, Venus passes Regulus around the time of the star’s heliacal rising, as on 5 September 2014. The primary of Regulus A has about 3.5 times the Sun’s mass and is a young star of only a few hundred million years. It is spinning extremely rapidly, with a rotation period of only 15.9 hours, which causes it to have a highly oblate shape.[16] This results in so-called gravity darkening: the photosphere at Regulus’ poles is considerably hotter, and five times brighter per unit surface area, than its equatorial region. If it were rotating only 10% faster, the star’s gravity would be insufficient to hold it together, and it would spin itself apart.[17]
Regulus is a multiple star system consisting of four stars. Regulus A is a binary star consisting of a blue-white main sequence star of spectral type B7V, which is orbited by a star of at least 0.3 solar masses, which is probably a white dwarf. The two stars take approximately 40 days to complete an orbit around their common centre of mass. Given the extremely distorted shape of the primary, the relative orbital motion may be notably altered with respect to the two-body purely Keplerian scenario because of non-negligible long-term orbital perturbations affecting, for example, its orbital period. In other words, the third Kepler law, which holds exactly only for two pointlike masses, would be no longer valid because of the highly distorted shape of the primary. At a distance of around 4,200 AU[citation needed] from Regulus A is a binary star system that shares a common proper motion. Designated Regulus B and Regulus C, the Henry Draper Catalogue number for this pair is HD 87884. The first is a K2V star, while the companion is approximately M4V.[16] The companion pair has an orbital period of 2,000 years and is separated by about 100 AU.[citation needed]
The Regulus system as a whole is the twenty-first brightest star in the night sky with an apparent magnitude of +1.35. The light output is dominated by Regulus A. Regulus B, if seen in isolation, would be a binocular object of magnitude +8.1, and its companion, Regulus C, the faintest of the three stars that has been directly observed, would require a substantial telescope to be seen, at magnitude +13.5. Regulus A is itself a spectroscopic binary: the secondary star has not yet been directly observed as it is much fainter than the primary. The BC pair lies at an angular distance of 177 arc-seconds from Regulus A, making them visible in amateur telescopes[citation needed].
Rēgulus is Latin for ‘prince’ or ‘little king’. The Greek variant Basiliscus is also used. It is known as Qalb al-Asad, from the Arabicقلب الأسد, meaning ‘the heart of the lion’. This phrase is sometimes approximated as Kabelaced and translates into Latin as Cor Leōnis. It is known in Chinese as 轩辕十四, the Fourteenth Star of Xuanyuan, the Yellow Emperor. In Hinduastronomy, Regulus corresponds to the NakshatraMagha (“the bountiful”). Babylonians called it Sharru (“the King”), and it marked the 15th ecliptic constellation. In India it was known as Maghā (“the Mighty”), in SogdianaMagh (“the Great”), in PersiaMiyan (“the Centre”) and also as Venant, one of the four ‘royal stars‘ of the Persian monarchy. [18] It was one of the fifteen Behenian stars known to medievalastrologers, associated with granite, mugwort, and the kabbalistic symbol . In MUL.APIN, Regulus listed as LUGAL, meaning “the star that stands in the breast of the Lion:the King.”.[19]
ABOUT THE TIME OF JESUS’ DEATH Most early accounts suggest that Jesus died between AD28 to AD33. JULIUS AFRICANUS: says the passover when Jesus was killed was “the 2nd year of the 102nd Olympiad” (Ch 18:2-3) which by his reference to Tiberius shows he meant the 202nd Olympiad which was the passover between July AD30 to July AD31. (Chronology 18:1-3) Perhaps AD29. THE GOSPEL OF NICODEMUS: Gives the date of March 25 in the consulship of Rufus and Rubellio (AD33) in the fourth year of the two hundred and second Olympiad which was between July AD32 to July AD33. (Acts of Pilate, A-N, Vol 8 p416) This was a Tuesday but could be taken as the date that he wrote the account. The Passover was on about Saturday April 4 in AD33. TERTULLIAN: (AD145-220) in Answer to the Jews (A-N, Vol 3, p160) says that Jesus was slain “in the consulate of Rubellius Geminus and Fufius Geminus, (AD29) in the month of March,” on the 25th. This was a Friday but the Passover in AD29 was on Monday the 18th of April. CLEMENT of Alexandria: (AD153-217) says “from the time that he suffered till the destruction of Jerusalem are forty-two years and three months;” deduction means he thought Jesus was killed in AD28. He also said “And treating of His passion, with very great accuracy, some say that it took place in the sixteenth year of Tiberius, on the twenty-fifth of Phamenoth; and others the twenty-fifth of Pharmuthi and others say that on the nineteenth of Pharmuthi the Saviour suffered. (Stromata, Book 1, Ch 21, A-N, Vol 2, p333) HIPPOLYTUS OF ROME: (AD170-236) says our Lord was born in the 28th year of the reign of Augustus (3BC), and says that Jesus died IN his 33rd year. (Commentary on Daniel, 4:23) This would result in AD30 or AD31depending upon when in the year he thought Jesus was born. CHRONICON PASCHALE: 19th year of Tiberius, the 4th year of the 202nd Olympiad. (July AD32 to July AD33) but also has the Ascension in AD29 and death in AM5540 or AD31. (Witby p3 & p13) EUSEBIUS: said in 340 (Between Oct in AD29 to Oct in AD30) Last lines of Book 2, Penguin p34 and says the temple was destroyed “forty years after their crime” (Penguin p75) Josephus says that the temple was destroyed on the 10th of Lous (Av) which is thought to have been Monday the 6th of August in AD70 (Wars 6:4:4), 40 years before this date would be August AD30, but using the Hebrew method of counting 40 years results in AD31. In the notes by Witby in The Chronicon Paschale, Eusebius said it was the 18th year of Tiberius, the 3rd year of the 202nd Olympiad. (July AD31 to July AD32) (CP p15) EPIPHANIUS: Calculation shows he thought Jesus died in AD31. (Ch 51) Hippolytus, Tertullian and Dionysius Exiguus believed that Jesus was both conceived and crucified on March 25 (subsequently it follows that Jesus was born 9 months later on Dec 25) (Chambers-Chronology), but they must have been dreaming as the passover rarely falls on March 25. So did the Passover really fall on the 25th of March anytime between AD29 to AD33 as some writers claim ? The date of the astronomical full moon and the Julian date of the Passover on the Babylonian calendar in the years that some say that Jesus died were:- ASTRONOMICAL F.M. (O/S) BABYLONIAN LUNAR CALENDAR DATE FOR NISAN 14 AD29 Sunday April 17 Monday April 18, AD30 Thursday April 6 Friday April 7, AD31 Wednesday April 25, Wednesday April 25, AD32 Monday April 14 Monday April 14, AD33 Sunday May 3 Saturday May 2 – all these fell in April or May and not once did the passover fall in March, the only year in which the Passover fell in March after the equinox “in Aries” is when using the system of Aristobulus and Josephus, and this could only have been in AD31, and would have been Tuesday March 27 which was both the date of the astronomical Full Moon and the Babylonian date of Addaru 14, and the 25th of March was the previous Sunday, which was not the day of the passover. More recent writers include: AD27 Clark, Humphreys. AD28 Ruckstuhl. AD29 Clark but he does not commit himself as to which day he thinks was the Passover. AD30 Cath’ Ency’, Schaff, Humphreys, Ruckstuhl. AD31 Maxwell (SDA), Ruckstuhl. AD33 Cath’ Ency’, Schaff, J W’s, Humphreys, Ruckstuhl. AD34 Clark, Humphreys. The perpetrators and perpetuators of the Friday “crucifixion” myth have tried to fit the dating to suit their theories, saying that Jesus died or could have died on Fridays in AD27 to AD34. Schaff (p62) says that the Friday in AD30 was Nisan 15 (April 7 O/S) also the Catholic Encyclopedia agrees that it was Nisan 15, but the fact is that the Passover was not Nisan 15 as these claim but the Passover was killed on Nisan 14 and so Jesus would have died the day before the 15th, which would have been on Thursday, April 6. In AD30 the Passover on Nisan 14 was a Friday but for a Passover day to be on a Friday in consecutive years it must be in association with an intercalated year, for the Passover to be on a Friday for three years in a row is impossible, and so it is also impossible for all the Passovers to have been on a Friday in AD27, 29, 30, 31, 33 & 34 which are the most frequently used years by those who try to perpetuate the myth that Jesus died on a Friday and rose on the following Sunday morning. SDA’s live in a seemingly perpetual state of denial of calendar realities while Coulter who claims a Wednesday death says that it could have been a Wednesday in AD30 as well as AD31. (153, Scriptural Truth about Passover O.T. Tape 1, Side 1). Martin uses quotes from the Talmud in “The Strange Ending to Sotah” (p8) to arrive at AD30, but Tishri AD31 is 40 Hebrew calendar years before Av in AD70. Jehovah’s Witnesses say that Jesus died on Friday Nisan 14 in AD33, they use the N/S calendar and say that it was April 1 in AD33, which is April 3 (O/S) which was also the date of the astronomical full moon, although the date of Passover on the Babylonian calendar in AD33 was actually Saturday May 2. AD33 There have been a number of people who have thought that Jesus was killed in AD33. The Gospel of Nicodemus can be found in the Ante-Nicene series, Vol 8 p416. The introduction to this book opens giving the date of the 25th of March “in the fourth year of the two hundred and second Olympiad” which was between July AD32 to July AD33. The Julian calendar shows that this was a Wednesday. It seems to imply that this was the day of Jesus trial and death but it could be argued that this may have only been referring to the date on which the account was written and if so then Jesus died before this date. This date for Jesus death is not possible because the moon was only at first quarter on March 25th in AD33 and the Passover on Nisan 14 was not until Friday April 3rd. It says “the moon as if turned into blood” but this is also fictitious as the full moon at Passover would not have been visible during the day when the sun was darkened as the moon does not rise until around evening at passover time, while another version of this account says “the moon being like blood, did not shine the whole night and yet she happened to be at the full.” THE ECLIPSE OF THE MOON THEORY In an edition of Nature, December 22-29, 1983, C Humphreys and W Waddington attempted to date the death of Jesus as having occurred on Friday April 3 in AD33 because of an eclipse of the moon on that evening which would have caused the moon to appear to have turned red and which they say is mentioned in Joel 2:31 and Acts 2:20, “the moon shall be turned to blood before the great and glorious day of the Lord comes.” and claiming that “the great and glorious day” refers to the day of Jesus’ resurrection. This article was challenged in the June 21 edition in AD1990 by C Ruggles who used work by B Schaffer who said the eclipse would not have been visible, after which Humphreys reaffirmed his claim that it would have been visible in the December 20-27, AD1990 edition. 1) They believe that the day of Preparation means it was a Friday so they only considered the possibility of the years AD27, 30, and 33 as candidates according to when a Nisan 14 Passover occurred on a Friday according to them. 2) According to the Babylonian calendar the Passover of Nisan 14 was on a Friday in AD27 (April 10 O/S) and a Friday in AD30 (April 7 O/S) and in AD33 it would have been on a Saturday (May 2 O/S) but using the previous lunar month as Josephus describes it would have been on Friday (April 3 O/S) but it was the prerogative of the Sanhedrin to delay the month. 3) They assume that “the great and glorious day” in Joel and Acts is referring to the day of Jesus resurrection but the “Day of the Lord” does not mean, the day of “Christs resurrection” but is referring to the figurative day of 1000 years which is yet future, (1 Thes 5:2) which ends when “the heavens will pass away with a loud noise and the elements will dissolve with fire.” (2 Peter 3:10) Since Adam was told that he would die “in the day” that he ate of the the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, (Gen 2:17) and yet lived until the age of 930 years, (Gen 5:5) and as the spiritual “rest” (Heb 4:1-11) is shown to last for 1000 years in Revelation 20:2-7, then it was understood that a day could represent 1000 years or millennium. (Ps 90:4, 2 Pet 3:8) The order of events are:- a) Jerusalem is surrounded with armies and the abomination set up then shall be great tribulation. (Matt 24:1, Lk 21:20-24) b) The sun is darkened and the moon turned to blood (Joel 2:31, Acts 2:20) and the stars will fall from heaven. (Mark 3:24, Rev 6:12) c) the Day of the Lord begins when the Beast and false Prophet will be cast into the lake of fire. (Joel 2:31, Rev 19:20) 4) Josephus shows Herod the Great began the reconstruction of the temple in his 18th year which was 20BC, the 46th year was not AD30-31 as they claim but was AD27-28. Adding a ministry of 3 1/2 years results in Jesus death in AD31. In the Sun Herald (17-April 2011) an article says Humphreys now says that the “Last Supper” occured on Wednesday, April 1, AD33 rather than on Thursday-“. MORE ABOUT WHICH YEAR John 7:37 tells us “In the last day, that great day of the feast, Jesus stood and cried, saying if any man thirst, let him come unto me, and drink.” This was about six months before the Passover when Jesus was killed. Later that day Jesus went to the Mount of Olives. (John 8:1) “and early in the morning he came again unto the temple and all the people came unto him;” (John 8:2) Some think there may be a break between the close of the eighth chapter of John and the start of chapter nine but chapter nine goes on to say that on that day he healed a blind man “And it was the sabbath day when Jesus made the clay, and opened his eyes.” It was suggested that as this healing was done on the sabbath day, then the “Last Great Day” fell on a Friday in that year, but this “last day, that great day of the feast,” was not the eighth day of the Feast of Tabernacles but was the seventh and last day of the Feast of Tabernacles, which is called “Hoshana Rabbah” (The Great Hosanna) The following day when Jesus made the clay was the eighth day, the annual sabbath day called “Sabbat Shmini Atzeret” (The Concluding Sabbath) which follows the “Last Great Day”, the seventh day of the Feast. There are discussions in the Mishna, Tosefta and Talmud (Suk 54-56) which date back to these early times when they refer to special conditions that applied to occasions when the annual feast days did fall alongside the weekly sabbath, meaning on a Friday or on Sunday. In the days of Ulla (2nd century) the first day of Tishri was being posponed from Wednesdays and Fridays but not yet from Sunday. (Meg 1:2) This ended when Hillel the Elder established that the seventh day of Sukkos would never fall on the sabbath. (BT Suk 43b) But this is not the case in the book of John which is referred to here. Some of us have been a bit careless in our terminology. The Feast of Tabernacles only goes for SEVEN days! Check Leviticus 23:36-39, Num 29:12 and Deut 16:13. The day following is an ANNUAL sabbath day but it is not part of the Feast of Tabernacles. It is a totally seperate day and the bible nowhere says it is a part of the feast of Tabernacles. (Lev 23:36-39 and Num 29:35) This is also confirmed in Numbers 29 where the sacrifices for the Feast are only for the first seven days. In the Mishna, (Jewish oral law) it says they ate fourteen meals during the feast, or two meals a day. (Sukkah 2:6-9) “the number of the burnt-sacrifices, whether taking each kind by itself or all of them together, is always divisible by the sacred number seven. We have for the week 70 bullock, 14 rams, 98 lambs, or altogether 182 sacrifices (26×7), to which must be added 336 (48×7) tenths of ephahs of flour for the meat offering. . . in the Feast of Tabernacles, its duration was seven days, it took place when the seventh month was at its full height, and had the number seven impressed on its characteristic sacrifices.” (The Temple by A Edersheim, Ch 14, The Offerings) The Babylonian Talmud says it is a seven day festival. (Sukk 28b) The Palestinian Talmud also says the festival is for seven days. (Sukk 4:1c) The Mishna supports this in Sukkah 4:1 and 4:9 where we are told that the “water libation” ceremony was also for seven days. This water libation ceremony was carried out each morning for the seven days of the feast while the morning sacrifices were being prepared. The priests went in procession from the temple out through the Water Gate and filled a golden jug with water from the Pool of Siloam then returned and poured it out onto the altar before God as an offering. This also represented the water from the “Rock in the Wilderness”. (Exodus 17:6, Num 20:8 and 1 Corinthians 10:4) This seventh day called “Hoshana Rabbah” or “Great Hosanna” is the “last” and “great day” of the feast referred to in John 7:37 when Jesus announced: “If any man thirst, let him come unto me and drink.” According to the lunar calendar this seventh day in AD30 was on Sunday the 8th of October. The next day, Monday, was the last ANNUAL holy day of the year and was the annual sabbath day on which Jesus healed the blind man in John 9:6. To most it is evident that the calculated calendar was not being used in Jesus’ day but to help make it easier to compare the alternative years, the following dates of this annual sabbath or “Eighth Day”, are provided, although to be candid because they anciently used visual observation they are only our best approximations as to when the days on their visual Hebrew calendars fell. THE 22 OF TISHRI IN THE BABYLONIAN CALENDAR (Nisan starts after equinox) Year Time of the Equinox Date of Last Annual Sabbath AD28 22 March – 01:33 PM Friday-01-Oct AD29 22 March – 07:30 PM Thursday-20-Oct AD30 23 March – 01:19 AM Monday-09-Oct AD31 23 March – 07:08 AM Sunday-28-Oct AD32 22 March – 12:55 PM Friday-17-Oct AD33 22 March – 06:42 PM Thursday-05-Nov THE 22 OF TISHRI USING THE SYSTEM OF JOSEPHUS (Passover in Aries) Year Time of the Equinox Date of Last Annual Sabbath AD28 22 March – 01:33 PM Friday-01-Oct AD29 22 March – 07:30 PM Thursday-20-Oct AD30 23 March – 01:19 AM Monday-09-Oct AD31 23 March – 07:08 AM Friday-28-Sep AD32 22 March – 12:55 PM Friday-17-Oct AD33 22 March – 06:42 PM Tuesday-06-Oct THE 22 OF TISHRI USING THE CALCULATED CALENDAR (Rules of AD801) Year Time of the Equinox Date of Last Annual Sabbath AD28 22 March – 01:33 PM Thursday-30-Sep AD29 22 March – 07:30 PM Tuesday-18-Oct AD30 23 March – 01:19 AM Saturday-07-Oct AD31 23 March – 07:08 AM Thursday-27-Sep AD32 22 March – 12:55 PM Thursday-16-Oct AD33 22 March – 06:42 PM Monday-05-Oct THE 22 OF TISHRI IN THE 364 DAY QUMRAN CALENDAR (Dead Sea Scrolls) The date of the Last Annual Sabbath was always a Wednesday. THE 22 OF TISHRI ACCORDING TO THE TALMUD (Sanhedrin 11a) As the month of Nisan could be delayed due to seasonal conditions then the date of the last Annual Sabbath could vary by a month. The Talmud forbids feastgoers from dwelling in their tabernacles on the Eighth Day unless their tabernacle has been invalidated so as not to add an eighth day to the festival. (PT Sukk 4, BT Sukk, 27a) The bible does not call this eighth day either the “Last” or the “Great” day. Just as the day of Preperation precedes the annual Passover sabbath, (Mk 15:42, Lk 23:54, Jn 19:31) so Hoshana Rabbah precedes the final annual holy day sabbath. If the so called, “Last Great Day” (Eighth Day) had fallen on a Friday in AD30 and the next day was a weekly sabbath, then it is impossible for the date of Jesus death in the following year to have been in AD31, the year which allows for Jesus spending a full 3 days and 3 nights in the tomb as the lunar calendar clearly shows. Those who think Jesus died in AD31 cannot have it both ways, one or the other is false, and it is not the calendar that is wrong. The “Last Great Day” is the seventh day of the Feast of Tabernacles , “the Eighth Day” is the eighth day of the bibles cosmic plan and conveys the idea of being, not the “Last” but the “FIRST Great Day”, of eternity. The English equivalent of the Jewish title for this eighth day is “Shabbat Shmini Atzeret” or “conclusion”. Some suggest the eighth day prefigures Judgement Day or a new beginning. The book of Jubilees (Ch 32) calls the eighth day “Addition” and tells a story of why it was added. THE 3 1/2 YEAR MINISTRY OF JESUS After the time of Jesus, people could not agree how long the ministry of Jesus had been. This uncertainty is evident by the second century. IGNATIUS (AD30-107) said in his letter to the Trallians that Jesus “lived among men for thirty years” and “had preached the Gospel three years,” (Ch 10) CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA who wrote around AD193 said “it was necessary for him to preach only a year,” which he thought was “the acceptable year of the Lord” (The Stromata, Book 1 Ch 21, A-N Vol 2 p333) so it appears that Clement thought that Jesus’ ministry only went on for one year. IRENAEUS the bishop of Lyons (AD120-202) wrote in about AD188 and questioned “How is it possible that the Lord preached for one year only ?” (Against Heresies, Book 2 Ch 22, A-N Vol 1, p391) and then goes on to say of Jesus “He did not then want much of being fifty years old;” (p392), so Irenaeus thought that Jesus preached for about 20 years then died at about 50 years of age. He says that the acceptable year of the Lord “is this present time – in which men are called and saved by the Lord,” (Ch 22, p390). ORIGEN thought it was 3 years and 4 months. (Commentary on Matthew 24:15) EPIPHANIUS says “from the time of the baptism and the start of the preaching until the crucifixion, a period of three years.” (Ch 51:22:1) As he gives Jesus birth as the 6th of January in 2BC and His baptism just prior to his 30th birthday as the 8th November (AD28) and his death on the 20th of March in AD31, it appears that Epiphanius thought the length of the ministry was really a little over 2 years and 4 months. Some parallel the 3 1/2 year ministry of Elias (1 Kings 18:1, James 5:17) and the two witnesses in Rev 11:3 with that of Jesus and take the prophecy of Daniel which says “he shall confirm the covenant with many for one week: and in the midst of the week he shall cause the sacrifice and the oblation to cease,” (Dan 9:26-27) to show not only his death on a Wednesday but apparently also “in the midst” of the sabbatical cycle of 7 years or 3 1/2 year ministry, and by extension also of Jesus being 33 1/2 years old being “in the midst” of a period of 70 years, as well as in the midst of a cosmic week of 7000 years. Luke 3:1 shows that John began his ministry after Pontius Pilate had become governor in AD26 and if John was born about the time of the Passover in 4BC he would have turned 30 in about April in AD27 and would have baptised Jesus later that same year after the Feast of Tabernacles when Jesus also had turned about 30 years of age. HIPPOLYTUS said that Jesus “suffered in the thirty third year” (Commentary A-N Vol 5, p179) Hippolytus considered John the Baptist as a “forerunner” of Jesus who intimated his Saviour. (Treatise, A-N Vol 5, p213) and so because John was born 6 month before Jesus, it suggests he also died 6 months before him too. MELITO wrote in about AD170 that “three years” elapsed after Jesus was baptised (Fragments 7, A-N Vol 8, p760) EUSEBIUS of Caesarea says “the Roman governors bestowed the high priesthood first on one then on another and the office was held for not more than a single year. He quotes Josephus (Ant 18:2:2) After Ananus or Annus was Ishmael, Eleazar, Simon and then Joseph Caiaphas “Thus the whole period of our Saviour’s teaching is shown to be actually less than four complete years” (The History of the Church, Book 1, Ch10. Penguin p27) but these appointments are thought to have been made by Valerius Gratus the procurator of Judea before he was succeeded by Pontius Pilate in AD26. Eusebius says that the year of the resurrection and ascension was 340, which is said to be AD30. (Penguin p34) The book of John gives a chronological order of the events during the time of the ministry but few details, while the others give more details but not always in order so looking at the lives of John the baptist, the disciples etc and comparing the events with the feasts and seasons as best we can, we have; THE FIRST SIX MONTHS FROM OCTOBER AD27 Jesus’ baptism at age 30 (about Sunday October 5 in AD27) John 1:32 followed by 40 day fast. (mid Nov AD27) It appears that this may have been the beginning of a sabbatical year but as some point out a 50 year Jubilee cycle was not being observed and so this may not have been a true sabbatical year. The miracle at the wedding at Cana followed by the first passover 2:13, 23. when Herods temple was about 46 1/2 years old. (2:20) This was March 29, AD28. FROM THE PASSOVER AD28 TO THE PASSOVER AD29 After the passover Jesus went to Judaea while John baptised at Aenon. Jn 3:23. Jesus was returning to Galilee through Samaria (4:3) when he said “Say not ye, There are yet four months, and then cometh harvest?” 4:35 Some think this refers to the end of the sabbatical year in Oct AD28 (would any of the crop have survived from April to October ?) while others think it means the next Passover of April AD29. He later did some miracles back in Galilee. 4:54 After his return to Nazareth Jesus read from Isaiah, Martin suggests p246-7 that Luke 4:16 may mean this was the day of weeks or Pentecost which would have been Sunday 1st June AD28 O/S. According to this view he would have returned home within 8 weeks of the AD28 Passover. THE PASSOVER OF AD29 TO THE PASSOVER AD30 The next feast John mentions is “a feast of the Jews; and Jesus went up to Jerusalem.” 5:1. This appears to have been after the “harvest” he mentioned earlier (4:35) and again there are several alternatives that some suggest, 1) The Feast of Tabernacles, 2) Hanuka, 3) Purim, 4) Passover AD29, although the chronological order of events shows this was after the passover of AD29 because at this time Jesus heals a man on the sabbath, (5:8-10) and delivers a sermon on the resurrection to the Jews in which he says (v35) that John “WAS a burning and shining lamp,” suggesting that John the Baptist was already dead, so it appears that John’s account does not mention the passover of AD29. Josephus tells us that John the Baptist who was nearly 33 years old, was killed at Machaerus (Ant 18:5:2) “immediately” (Mk 6:27) on Herod’s birthday (Matt 14:6). Mark 6:21 would lead us to think the party was held in Galilee but some say the birthday celebrations for Herod Antipas were held at Machaerus and was just before Purim (Adar 13) which was Tuesday the 7th of March in AD30 or perhaps the Feast of the New Year as suggested by J.R.Harris. (F.Bruce p49) Shortly after this, perhaps on the sabbath day following the day of Purim, Jesus healed the man who had been crippled for 38 years and then mentions that John the Baptist, “- WAS a burning and shining lamp,-” (5:35) then sometime later after going back to Galilee and after the return of his disciples, Jesus “withdrew from there in a boat”. (Matt 14:13, Mark 6:32, John 6:1) The next Passover John mentions is in 6:4 and is the one in AD30, working backwards from the death of Jesus this passover is soon after Jesus is told that John the Baptist had been killed, Jesus then fed the 5000 (Matt 14:21) which is supported by the green grass, (Mark 6:39) and the barley loaves.(John 6:13) and is mentioned by all four Gospel writers. THE LAST PASSOVER This was twelve months after the feeding of the 5000 and was the Passover of AD31 when Jesus was killed. 3 1/2 YEAR CHRONOLOGY MATT MARK LUKE JOHN Jesus goes from Galilee to Jordan to John 3:13 Jesus baptised about 30 years of age (Oct AD27) 1:1-4 3:21-3 Jesus in the Wilderness 40 days 4:1 4:1-13 He turns the water into wine at Cana 2:1-11 Goes to Capernaum 2:12 Then goes up to Jerusalem at Passover 2:13 PASSOVER AD28 This is the 46th Year of Herods temple 2:13-20 Jesus talks with Nicodemus 3:1-21 Goes to Aenon in Judah where John is 3:22-6 Then to Samaria (Dec) “4 months to harvest” 4:4-43 Hears John is cast into prison, shut, arrested 4:12 3:20 Back to Galilee, taught in synagogues 1:14 4:14-5 At Nazareth reads Isaiah on sabbath (Pentecost?) 4:16 It appears that he had healed at Capernaum 4:23 Moves to Capernaum, began preaching “Repent” 4:13-17 1:15 4:31-2 Cana Noblemans son fever (2nd miracle) 4:46-54 Casts out demon on Sabbath at Capernaum Synagogue 4:33-5 Nain mothers son healed 7:11-17 John hears in prison, sends 2 disciples 11:2-4 7:18-36 That hour cured many 7:21 Go tell John what you hear and see 11:4 7:22-35 Jesus upbraids Chorazin Bethsaida Tyre etc 11:20 10:13 70 return 10:17 Visits Marthas 10:38-42 PASSOVER AD29 GRAINFIELDS sabbath, good, sheep,David, Abithar 12:1 2:23 6:1 Goes into their Synagogue on another sabbath 12:9 6:6 Withered hand healed on sabbath 12:10 3:1 6:10 Pharisees and Herodians conspire 12:14 3:6 Withdrew himself, many followed 12:15 3:7 Prayed in hills all night 6:12 Appointed 12 apostles 3:14 6:13 Into his own country, prophet without honour 13:54 6:1 Disciples sent 2 x 2 6:7 9:1-6 JOHN DEAD, disciples bury him in tomb 14:1-12 6:29 FEAST OF THE JEWS (probably Purim) 5:1 Jesus goes to Jerusalem 5:1 Impotent 38 year old man healed on sabbath. Bed 5:5-47 Herod hears of Jesus 14:1 6:14 9:7 Disciples return Apostles 6:30 Johns disciples tell Jesus of Johns death 14:12 Jesus withdrew by ship to desert Bethsaida 14:13 6:32 9:10 6:1 Into the hills with disciples, 6:3 PASSOVER WAS AT HAND AD30 6:4 5 barley LOAVES 2 FISH, green grass Mk v39 14:14-21 6:44 9:14 6:9 People sat in 50’s 9:14 Disciples into ship, Jesus to mountain 14:22-33 6:46 Jesus walks on water in 4th watch 14:26 6:48 6:19 Land at Gennesaret 14:34 6:53 Sermon at Capernaum about manna 6:24-59 Many drew back 6:66 Pharisees from Jerusalem, blind hypocrites, tradition 7:1 FEAST OF TABERNACLES 7:2 FEAST OF DEDICATION (Hanuka) 10:22 LAST PASSOVER AD 31 26:2 14:1 22:1 13:1 THE PASSOVER MONTH IN AD31 The Sabbath research Center of Westfield Indiana, the SDA writer Mervin Maxwell, Harold Hemenway and others say that in the year of Jesus death AD31, the Passover was in April and not in March. Perhaps Maxwell says it was April because the Hebrew calendar fits closer to the Friday crucifixion theory of Ellen White than when using March, and Hemenway because he believes that the year should begin after the equinox. Aristobulus of Paneas (200-150BC) is recorded as saying that the Passover followed the equinox, he did not say that the new year followed the equinox. Josephus writing in about AD94 agreed with this, saying that the Passover was kept “when the sun is in Aries” (Ant 3:10:5) Josephus finished writing his book in AD94 when the equinox was actually on Saturday March 22 (O/S). Pliny the Elder (AD23-79) said the equinox was on March 25 and that it was “at the eighth degree of Aries” (Natural History 2:17) or on the eighth day, meaning Aries began on March 18, using the actual day of the equinox would make this March 15, so either of these may have also been in the reckoning followed by the Sanhedrin which Josephus describes which would support the Passover being in March rather than April. This system shows that the dating of the Passover was not according to the Babylonian calendar in which the first month could begin as late as a lunar month, about 30 days after the equinox or about April 22 and would result in the Passover falling in Taurus instead of Aries. Solinsky thinks the Jews in the time of Jesus followed the Babylonian calendar and he refers to an archaeological discovery in Libya that shows that in the “55th year” of Actium which was from August 29 in AD24 to August 28 in AD25, the Feast of Booths was late in October so the calendar used by the Jews had had a 13th month added to it in the previous year as in the Babylonian calendar in AD25 but the Feast of Booths in the 55th year was not in AD25 but was in AD24 following a leap year as it was in the “Aries” calendar of Josephus, not in the Babylonian calendar. Following the method used by Josephus for the year AD31, when the mean equinox fell on Friday March 23 (O/S), results in the Passover in Aries being on about Tuesday March 27 or if it was postponed a day, to Wednesday the 28th. This method explained by Josephus was not a biblical command that could never be changed later, as some of the writers in the 3th century AD show. Peter of Alexandria wrote “the ancients celebrated the Passover according to the divine command after the equinox, whereas the men of the present day now celebrate it before the equinox.” (Fragments of Peter, A-N Vol 6, p281) Anatolius of Alexandria said “they – have added three days before the equinox in which they hold that the Passover may be celebrated.” (Ch 9) “the lamb was sacrificed by the Jews after the equinox was past.” (Ch 10) (A-N Vol 6, p148-9) There is no “divine command” to keep the Passover after the Equinox and these writers show that the passing of the equinox was not of overriding importance in the Jewish calendar for the date for the Passover and the bible nowhere says that it should be. It was the participants of the false church who like the writer of the Ecclesiastical Canons, (A-N Vol 7 p500) who said “If any bishop, or presbyter, or deacon shall celebrate the holiday of the passover before the vernal equinox with the Jews, let him be deprived.” (47:8) That the Hebrew calendar began the year before the equinox and not after it can be seen from the decision of the Council of Nicea in AD325 to make Easter which followed the Passover to be held on the first Sunday following the full moon after the equinox. If the Hebrew calendar had begun Nisan after the equinox then Easter would have often fallen after the second full moon following the equinox. Herb Solinsky on page 93 of his calendar notes gives the list of dates for Nisan 15 when the equinox was falling on March 20 (O/S) between AD328 to AD343 from p122 of “Christliche und Judische Ostertafein” by Eduard Schwartz, which all began in March, the earliest one being on March 2 in AD337 (O/S) which means the month of Nisan began on February 16th (O/S). In the time of Justinians rule from AD527 to 565, Procopius shows in The Secret History, 28:11 (Penguin p182) that the Passover sometimes fell after Easter. This probably occurred as a result of the introduction of the fixed Hebrew calendar leap-year cycle which would sometimes cause the first Hebrew month of Nisan to begin the new year from the first new moon after the Equinox. AD31 During the 3 1/2 year ministry there would have been at least one leap year. Some believe the Sanhedrin used or based their calculations upon the Babylonian calendar during the time of Jesus. Herman Hoeh, O’Neil (p90) and others have said that AD31 was the embolistic year having a thirteenth or intercalery month. On the Babylonian calendar which followed the 19 year calendar cycle, the 17th year which was a leap year ended in about March of AD31 and although the extra month would have been added after Elul, or about Sept in AD30 the added month of Adar II would not have been added to the Sanhedrins calendar until the end of the Hebrew year, around March and April of AD31.The old Babylonian cycle is not the same 19 year cycle as currently used in the modern Hebrew system of AD801 which was a later innovation and is the same 19 year cycle used in the Karaite calendar that makes the Hebrew year from Saturday the 16th of September in AD30 to Tuesday the 4th of September (O/S) in AD31 to have been the 10th year of the 200th cycle from September in 3761BC and so would not have made the year ending in AD31 to have been a leap year. Following the method given by Josephus for determining the time of Passover being “when the sun is in Aries” requires a different 19 year cycle again and a reconstruction of this system results in the embolistic month being added in AD29 while AD31 was probably the 13th year of this 19 year cycle and so AD31 may not have been a leap year, but this creates an additional uncertainty which Solinsky mentions in his Mosaic Calendar (p63) which is that four days before the passover Matt 21:19 says, “And seeing a fig tree by the wayside he went to it, and found nothing on it but leaves only.”, Mark 11:13 adds, “And seeing in the distance a fig tree in leaf, he went to see if he could find anything on it. When he came to it, he found nothing but leaves, for it was not the season for figs.” The Equinox was on Friday the 23rd of March in AD31. The offering of the firstfruits of figs was done at Pentecost which falls in May or June, and because the fig tree was in leaf this would ordinarily indicate that perhaps this took place in April rather than March although it seems a bit curious that Jesus would have been unaware that it would be too early in the year to expect to find any edible “figs” as Mark 11:13 suggests. Christie thinks Jesus was hoping to find the small edible knobs that the Arabs call “taqsh” which accompany the leaves and fall off before the figs are formed and that this event was an omen. (Bruce, The NT Documents, p74) The Bible Cyclopaedia by A.Fausset under Fig says, “Figs usually ripened in August; earlier ones in June.” – the leaves on the `one’ fig tree, when all others were bare, caught Jesus’ eye `afar off’; as the fruit precedes the leaves, naturally He might have expected, for satisfying His hunger, figs from a tree with such a precocious show of leaf, even though the season of figs was not yet come. It was the unseasonable display of leaves which led Him to come and see `if haply (if as might naturally be expected) He might find anything thereon.’ – in a sheltered spot figs of an early kind may occasionally be found ripe as soon as the beginning of April,-” Do the fig trees near Bethany have enough leaves on the day after the equinox to require a search for figs? This event appears similar to the parable of the “fig tree planted in his vineyard;” (Luke 13:6-9) “Behold, these THREE YEARS I come seeking fruit on this fig tree.-” (v7) which was also possibly an indication of Jesus’ ministry covering the first three Passovers of AD28, AD29 and AD30. SDA’s FRIDAY AD31 Seventh Day Adventists such as Samuele Bacchiocchi and Mervyn Maxwell hold onto the teachings of Ellen White who claimed in her book called “The Desire of Ages” in the chapter called “Why Weepest Thou ?”, that Jesus died on the sixth day of the week and being so convinced of a Friday “crucifixion” they are prepared to agree with her notion that the Passover could have fallen on a Friday in AD31, this can be found in The Time of the Crucifixion by Samuele Bacchiocchi and in The Message of Daniel by Mervyn Maxwell. (Vol 1, p263) Bacchiocchi does not say which month he thinks Jesus died in, but Maxwell says that it was in April. Some who seem unwilling to accept that Jesus died on a Wednesday in AD31 fill the two day gap by fudging the calender by one day making Nisan 14 a Thursday, then they say that Jesus died on the 15th instead of the 14th. Matt 26:5 says “Not on the feast, lest there be an uproar -“. The rule that the Passover on the 14th of Nisan was to follow the equinox is thought to have been established by Aristobulus of Paneas before 150BC which Maxwell acknowledges on page 225 but assumes that it did not occur that way. The equinox in AD31 was on Friday March 23 (O/S) The conjunction in that month had fallen on Sunday March 11 (O/S) at about 11.26pm or just before midnight, a week after perigee, (when the moons movement is at its fastest) the first sighting of the new moon could have possibly, but is unlikely to have been sometime later within about the next 19 hours before the moon set at 6.41pm on Monday evening, this would result in the Passover being Monday March 26. If the moon was seen on the next evening before it set at 7.39pm on Tuesday March 13 (O/S) then it would result in the Passover falling on Tuesday March 27 which was the date of the astronomical full moon, and is the date of the 14th of the previous lunar month in the Babylonian calendar of Parker and Dubberstein, but if the Sanhedrin delayed or “postponed” the beginning of the month until the following evening as they are shown to have sometimes done perhaps due to cloudy weather or the failure of reports by the witnesses of the new moon, then this delay would make the Passover to have been on Wednesday March 28 (O/S) as indicated by 3 days and 3 nights, the Gospel of Peter and Anatolius etc. If Nisan began in the following month of April as Maxwell, the Sabbath Research Center and others say then as the conjunction in April of AD31 was on Tuesday the 10th (O/S) at 1.08am, and as the moon set at 4.37 in the afternoon, five days before apogee then the new moon would not have been visible on the same Tuesday evening and is unlikely to have been seen on the following evening as the moon set at 5.40pm but it was probably seen the next evening as the moon set at 6.41pm. The Astronomical full moon was on Wednesday April 25 (O/S) and according to the Babylonian calendar the Passover would have also been on Wednesday April 25 (O/S) this was over a month after the date of the equinox and was probably the second Hebrew month of Iyar. Even if the beginning of this month was delayed, the Passover would have only been on Thursday at the very latest and as there could only be a maximum of 30 days in a lunar month and not 31 days, it appears quite obvious that it was impossible for Jesus to have died on a Friday in AD31 as they believe. THE LAST SIX DAYS BEFORE THE PASSOVER John 12:1 seems to invite us to take a closer look at the last six days before the Passover on which Jesus was killed. John shows Jesus traveled from the other side of Jericho to near Jerusalem “six days before passover”, but THREE DAYS BEFORE (on the 4th day of the six days), Matthew and Mark say that it was “two days” before the Passover, which would have made Thursday 5 days, not 6 days before the passover. Probably John is writing from the point of view of it being early on the sixth day, while Matthew and Mark are writing near the evening THREE DAYS BEFORE the Passover (on the 4th of the six days), meaning that there was only 2 days left to go. Bullinger in the Companion Bible thought the 6th day before the Passover meant the 9th of Nisan, a Friday and this is the dating followed by Garner Ted Armstrong, (The Passover p30 and his tape “The Eyewitnesses” 3-Apr-99) but if one day before the Passover was Tuesday Nisan 13 then 6 days before would have been Thursday Nisan 8 and this is the dating followed by the Sabbath Research Center. (The Events of Nisan 8th-18th) and W.Dankenbring, (New Bombshell Explodes- p36). Would Jesus have ridden the donkey on the Sabbath as it would have been according to Bullingers reckoning when the fourth commandment requires that animals are to rest (Deut 5:14) ? Some speculate that there were two separate “donkey” rides on two different days, others think there were two separate incidents with the fig tree on two different days, others, that Jesus’ trial went on for two days, – but this is rubbish as the chronology of the last 6 days shows that there was insufficient time for these imagined theories to have occurred on two extra days. This also shows that the donkey ride 5 days before the Passover was not on “Palm Sunday” but was on “Palm” Friday after which he “began” to cast out the moneychangers and also overturned their tables again the next morning while they were working in the temple, which was on the sabbath day. THE LAST SIX DAYS (* critical verses) MATTHEW MARK LUKE JOHN 6 THURSDAY MARCH 22ND NISAN 8 At Simon the lepers In Bethany (26:6) Ointment v7-9 Judas goes v14 Simon the lepers house at Bethany Ointment 14:3 Judas went 14:10 Entered Jericho v1 Zaccheras (19:2) Near Jerusalem v11 Six days beforePassover * Bethany (12:1) supper, Ointment, Mary, Judas 5 FRIDAY MARCH 23RD NISAN 9 Near Jerusalem 21:1 Bethphage Mount of Olives DONKEY RIDE Entered temple v12 overturned tables of MONEYCHANGERS Healing Hosanna At Bethany 21:17 Near Jerusalem 11:1 Bethphage, Bethany Mount of Olives DONKEY RIDE v17 Entered Jerusalem into the temple as it was already late 11:11 eventide at Bethany Bethphage v29 and Bethany Mount of Olives DONKEY RIDE down Mt of Olives 19:37 entered temple v45 BEGAN to cast out THOSE WHO SOL The next day v12 * DONKEY RIDE 12:12 4 SATURDAY MARCH 24TH NISAN 10 In the morning v18 * Saw FIG TREE v19 On the morrow 11:12 * FIG TREE v13-14 Came to Jerusalem entered temple v15 MONEYCHANGERS carry no vessel v16 Lamb put aside? 3 SUNDAY MARCH 25TH NISAN 11 into temple v23 WHAT AUTHORITY? Johns baptism vineyard, stone, tried to arrest him v 46 Caesar 22:17 Davids son Moses seat Out of temple buildings Ch24-25 Olivet prophecy Passover in 2 days 26:2 * In the morning v20 * Fig tree withered to Jerusalem v27 BY WHAT AUTHORITY? Johns baptism v30 vineyard, stone, tried to arrest him 12:12 Caesar v14 Davids Widow v42 Out of temple Ch13 magnificent buildings Olivet prophecy now 2 days before Passover and U.B. 14:1 WHAT AUTHORITY? Johns baptism v4 vineyard, v 13, stone, tried to lay hands v22 Caesar v 22 Davids son v41 Poor Widow 21:2 noble stones Olivet prophecy 2 MONDAY MARCH 26TH NISAN 12 no questions 22:46 did hide 12:36. 1 TUESDAY MARCH 27TH NISAN 13 1st day of U/B v17 EVENING 26:20 1st day of U/B v12 jar, EVENING 14:17 U/B, lamb sacrificed v7 jar v10, THE HOUR PASSOVER – WEDNESDAY MARCH 28TH ( NISAN 14)
St. Rumon (Born c.AD 515) (Welsh-Rhufon, Latin-Romanus, English-Ronan) Rumon is a saint of some controversy. He is chiefly the patron of Tavistock in Devon, but also apparently of several churches in Cornwall and Brittany where he is variously called Ruan or Ronan. It is note completely certain that the character referred to in each was the same man. According to the relic lists of Glastonbury, Prince Rumon was a brother of St. Tugdual and, therefore, one of the sons of King Hoel I Mawr (the Great) of Brittany. Tradition says he was educated in Britain – probably Wales – but that he later accompanied St. Breaca on her return from Ireland to her Cornish homeland. Like Tudgual, he had presumably travelled to Ireland to learn the Holy Scriptures. He is said to have lived in a hermitage on Inis Luaidhe, near Iniscathy, and was eventually raised to the episcopacy. In Cornwall, he founded churches at Ruan Lanihorne (on the River Fal), Ruan Major & Minor (near the Lizard Peninsula), a defunct chapel in Redruth and at Romansleigh in Devon; but he quickly moved on to Cornouaille in Brittany, with St. Senan as his companion. Rumon met up with St. Remigius in Rheims, which would place him in Brittany around the early 6th century, the probable time of his birth if he was a son of Hoel Mawr. At any rate, he settled first at St. Rénan and then moved on to the Forest of Nevez, overlooking the Bay of Douarnenez. He seems to have acquired a wife, named Ceban, and children at some point. He may be identical with Ronan Ledewig (the Breton), father of SS. Gargunan and Silan. His lady wife took a distinct dislike to Rumon’s preaching amongst the local pagan inhabitants and considered him to be neglecting his domestic duties. The situation became so bad that she plotted to have Rumon arrested. Hiding their little daughter in a chest, Ceban fled to the Royal Court at Quimper and sought an audience with the Prince of Cornouaille – supposedly Gradlon, though he lived some years earlier. She claimed that her husband was a werewolf who ravaged the local sheep every fortnight and had now killed their baby girl! Rumon was arrested, but the sceptical monarch tested him by exposing the prisoner to his hunting dogs. They would have immediately reacted to any sign of wolf, but Rumon remained unharmed and was proclaimed a holy man. His daughter was found, safe and well, whilst his wife appears to have received only the lightest of punishments. Despite this, her troubling making persisted and Rumon was forced to abandon her and journey eastward towards Rennes. He eventually settled at Hilion in Domnonia, where he lived until his death. There was much quarrelling over Rumon’s holy body after his demise. His companion had thought to keep one of his arms as a relic and brutally cut it off. A disturbing dream soon made him put it back though. Later, the Princes of Cornouaille, Rennes and Vannes all claimed the honour of burying him in their own province. The matter was decided by allowing him to be drawn on a wagon by two three-year-old oxen who had never been yoked. Where they rested, he would be interred. However, the body would not allow itself to be lifted onto the cart, except by the Prince of Cornouaille; so it was no surprise when the cattle chose Locronan in the Forest of Nevez, near his former home. It is unclear when Rumon’s relics left Locronan – despite the 16th century shrine still to be seen there today. It was suggested by Baring-Gould & Fisher that they were removed to safety in Britain during the Viking coastal attacks of AD 913 & 14. Tradition says they were taken to Quimper, thence to Ruan Lanihorne in Cornwall. In AD 960, however, Earl Ordgar of Devon founded his great Abbey of Tavistock, on the edge of Dartmoor. He translated the body of Rumon into the abbey church with much pomp and ceremony and there it remained, working miracles for nearly six hundred years: until the Dissolution of the Monastery in the late 1530s. Some relics, however, may have made their way back to Brittany, by the 13th century, including, perhaps, his head. Rumon’s feast day is variously given as 1st June (in Brittany), 22nd July (in Ireland) and 28th August (in England); perhaps around AD 560.
An army of four legions and approximately 20,000 auxiliaries, commanded by senator Aulus Plautius, landed at Richborough, Kent. The Romans met a large army of Britons, under the Catuvellauni kings Caratacus and his brother Togodumnus, on the River Medway, Kent. The Britons were defeated in a two-day battle, then again shortly afterwards on the Thames. Togodumnus died and Caratacus withdrew to more defensible terrain to the west.
The Severn Valley has always been one of the military keys of Britain, and some of the decisive battles of the Saxon conquest were fought to control it. In 577 Ceawlin advanced from the Thames Valley across the Cotswolds to seize the area and break the power of the Britons in the lower Severn area.[2][3]
Some historians (such as Welbore St Clair Baddeley in 1929) have concluded that the Saxons may have launched a surprise attack and seized the hill fort at Hinton Hill Camp (Dyrham Camp)[4] because it commanded the Avon Valley and disrupted communications north and south between Bath and her neighbouring Romano-British towns of Gloucester and Cirencester.[5] Once the Saxons were in occupation of the site (and had begun reinforcing the existing Iron Age defensive structures at the site) the Britons of those three towns were compelled to unite and make a combined attempt to dislodge them. Their attempt failed and the three opposing British kings were killed (they are named as Commagil of Gloucester, Condidan of Cirencester and Farinmagil of Bath). Their routed forces were driven north of the River Severn and south of Bath where it appears they began the construction of the defensive earthwork called the Wansdyke in a doomed attempt to prevent more territory from being lost.
The military historian Lieutenant-Colonel Alfred Burne, employing his theory of 'Inherent Military Probability' opted for a simpler explanation for the battle than Baddeley.[6] In his view Ceawlin was methodically advancing towards the Severn and the three forces of Britons concentrated to stop him. Burne suggests that they formed up along two slight ridges across the trackway that skirted the Forest of Braden, with Hinton Hill Camp behind them as their stores depot – a position similar to that adopted at the Battle of Beranburh in AD 556.[6] Burne pointed out that if the Saxon attack drove the Britons back from their first line onto the second ridge near the edge of the escarpment, the slightest further retreat would leave their flanks open to a downhill pursuit. He speculates that this is what occurred, with the three Briton leaders and their main body being driven back into the fort while the flanking Saxons driving forwards swept round behind the promontory on which the fort stands. A last stand in this position would explain why none of the three Briton leaders was able to escape
The remains of the old extension of Dunsdown Lane, that ran past Hinton Fort and was the route that Ceawlin took to capture and defeat the Britons at the Battle of Dyrham
There are many locations in France where you can see ruins dating from the period of Roman occupation.
